Formal verification
Mathematically proving that software or hardware satisfies a precise specification, usually with a proof assistant such as Lean that checks every step.
Unlike testing, which shows the presence of bugs on the inputs tried, formal verification shows their absence for every input covered by the specification. It has been reserved for kernels, compilers and avionics because writing the proofs cost person-years; in November 2026 DeepMind's AlphaProof Code generated about 6.5 million lines of Lean proof for Signal's protocol code in four weeks. The result is only as good as the specification, which remains human-reviewed.
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